''Cí'' (pronounced ; ), also known as ''chángduǎnjù'' () and ''shīyú'' (), is a type of

lyric poetry Modern lyric poetry is a formal type of poetry which expresses personal emotions or feelings, typically spoken in the first person. It is not equivalent to song lyrics, though song lyrics are often in the lyric mode, and it is also ''not'' equi ...

in the tradition of

Classical Chinese poetry Classical Chinese poetry is traditional Chinese poetry written in Classical Chinese and typified by certain traditional forms, or modes; traditional genres; and connections with particular historical periods, such as the poetry of the Tang dyn ...

that also draws upon folk traditions. ''Cí'' use various

poetic meter In poetry, metre ( Commonwealth spelling) or meter (American spelling; see spelling differences) is the basic rhythmic structure of a verse or lines in verse. Many traditional verse forms prescribe a specific verse metre, or a certain set of ...

s derived from a base set of fixed pattern forms, using fixed-rhythm, fixed-tone, and line-lengths varying according that of the model examples. The rhythmic and tonal pattern of the ''cí'' are based upon certain, definitive musical song tunes (''cípái''), and in many cases the name of the musical tune is given in the title of a ''cí'' piece, in a form such as "after (the tune of)...." The underlying songs are generally lost or uncertain. Typically, the number of

character Character or Characters may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Literature * ''Character'' (novel), a 1936 Dutch novel by Ferdinand Bordewijk * ''Characters'' (Theophrastus), a classical Greek set of character sketches attributed to The ...

s in each line and the arrangement of tones were determined by one of around 800 set patterns, each associated with a particular title, called ''cípái'' (). Originally, they were written to be sung to a tune of that title, with a set rhythm,

rhyme A rhyme is a repetition of similar sounds (usually, the exact same phonemes) in the final stressed syllables and any following syllables of two or more words. Most often, this kind of perfect rhyming is consciously used for a musical or aesthetic ...

, and tempo. Therefore, the title may have nothing to do with its content. Indeed, several ''cí'' often shared the same title. The titles did not refer to the content, but rather their shared rhythmic and tonal patterns. Some ''cí'' would have a "subtitle" or a commentary, sometimes as long as a paragraph, indicating the content. Sometimes, for the sake of clarity, a ''cí'' is listed under its title, followed by its first line. ''Cí'' often express feelings of desire, frequently in an adopted

persona A persona (plural personae or personas), depending on the context, is the public image of one's personality, the social role that one adopts, or simply a fictional Character (arts), character. The word derives from Latin, where it originally ref ...

; however, such great exponents of the form as

Chen Weisong Chen Weisong (陈维崧), also called Chen Qinian (其年) or Chen Jialing (迦陵), lived 1626 January 7－1682 June 13, was the first of the great Ci and Pianwen poets during the Qing dynasty. He was the leader and founder of the Yangxian poet ...

() and

Su Shi Su Shi (; 8 January 1037 – 24 August 1101), courtesy name Zizhan (), art name Dongpo (), was a Chinese calligrapher, essayist, gastronomer, pharmacologist, poet, politician, and travel writer during the Song dynasty. A major personality of ...

() used ''cí'' poetry to address a wide range of topics.

History

Although the oldest surviving textual examples of ''cí'' are from 8th century CE

Dunhuang manuscripts Dunhuang manuscripts refer to a wide variety of religious and secular documents (mostly manuscripts, but also including some woodblock-printed texts) in Chinese and other languages that were discovered at the Mogao Caves of Dunhuang, China, durin ...

, beginning in the

poetry Poetry (derived from the Greek ''poiesis'', "making"), also called verse, is a form of literature that uses aesthetic and often rhythmic qualities of language − such as phonaesthetics, sound symbolism, and metre − to evoke meanings i ...

of the

Liang dynasty The Liang dynasty (), alternatively known as the Southern Liang () in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the third of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. It was preceded by the South ...

, the ''ci'' followed the tradition of the ''

Shi Jing The ''Classic of Poetry'', also ''Shijing'' or ''Shih-ching'', translated variously as the ''Book of Songs'', ''Book of Odes'', or simply known as the ''Odes'' or ''Poetry'' (; ''Shī''), is the oldest existing collection of Chinese poetry, co ...

'' and the ''

yuefu ''Yuefu'' are Chinese poems composed in a folk song style. The term originally literally meant "Music Bureau", a reference to the imperial Chinese governmental organization(s) originally charged with collecting or writing the lyrics, later the t ...

'': they were lyrics which developed from anonymous popular songs into a sophisticated literary genre. In the case of the ''cí'' form, some of its fixed-rhythm patterns have been influenced by music and poetry of

Central Asia Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a subregion, region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes t ...

and elsewhere. The ''ci'' form developed during the late

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...

. Although the contributions of

Li Bai Li Bai (, 701–762), also pronounced as Li Bo, courtesy name Taibai (), was a Chinese poet, acclaimed from his own time to the present as a brilliant and romantic figure who took traditional poetic forms to new heights. He and his friend Du F ...

(701–762) are fraught with historical doubt, certainly the Tang poet

Wen Tingyun Wen Tingyun (; 812–870) born Wen Qi (), courtesy name Feiqing () was a Chinese poet. He was an important Chinese lyricist of the late Tang Dynasty. He was born in Qi, Shanxi province, China. Over his literary career, Wen became regarde ...

(812–870) was a great master of the ''ci'', writing it in its distinct and mature form. One of the more notable practitioners and developers of this form was Li Yu of the

Southern Tang Southern Tang () was a state in Southern China that existed during Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, which proclaimed itself to be the successor of the former Tang dynasty. The capital was located at Nanjing in present-day Jiangsu Province ...

dynasty, during the

Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (), from 907 to 979, was an era of political upheaval and division in 10th-century Imperial China. Five dynastic states quickly succeeded one another in the Central Plain, and more than a dozen conc ...

, subsequent to Tang. Before the ''ci'' form was formalized by the scholarly, it's antecedents had grown up in a setting of popular music. Serindian influences were particularly important in this regard; with the influence of Kucha drum dance tunes being the most important. Much of the process of importing Serindian influence into Classical Chinese poetry was mediated through the short-lived state of

Western Liang (555–587) Liang, known in historiography as the Western Liang () or the Later Liang (), was an imperial dynasty of China during the Northern and Southern dynasties era of Chinese history. Throughout its existence, it remained a puppet state of the Western ...

. Western Liang was basically a city-state centered on the city known in Tang times as Liangzhou. In Western Liang a musical hybrid of Chinese and Kuchean traditions developed, and became popularized throughout the Tang culture, from the people to even the emperor Xuanzong (reigned 713–756). This was part of a larger movement: "...of all the specialists of ambiguous socal status who were sent to China by a foreign government, the most popular and influential were the musicians―instrumentalists, singers, and dancers―and the instruments and musical modes that they brought with them....For many centuries, the music of the West had had its admirers in China, but under the Sui 81–618emperors there was a great vogue for it, which continued into T'ang times." Foreign music (in terms of performers, instruments, musical modes, and songs) was brought to China, often as a result of wars of conquest or as a type of "tribute" and this music found a place in informal settings at the imperial court to other less reputable settings. ''Ci'' poetry largely developed during the late Tang from the music made in popular settings such as houses of pleasure and from the inclusion of romantic and erotic themes of late Tang poets such as

Li Shangyin Li Shangyin (, 813858), courtesy name Yishan (), was a Chinese poet and politician of the late Tang dynasty, born in the Henei Commandery (now Qinyang, Henan). He is noted for the imagist quality of his poems and his "no title" () style of poe ...

. However, the ''ci'' form of Classical Chinese poetry is especially associated with the

poetry of the Song dynasty Poetry (derived from the Greek '' poiesis'', "making"), also called verse, is a form of literature that uses aesthetic and often rhythmic qualities of language − such as phonaesthetics, sound symbolism, and metre − to evoke meanings in ...

, during which it was indeed a popular poetic form. A revival of the ''cí'' poetry form occurred during the end of the

Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...

and the beginning of the

Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...

which was characterized by an exploration of the emotions connected with romantic love together with its secularization, often in a context of a brief poetic story narrative within a ''cí'' poem or a linked group of ''cí'' poems in an application of the ''

chuanqi Chuanqi ("strange tale", "legend", or "romance", depending on context) may refer to two related but distinct forms of Chinese fiction: *Chuanqi (short story), a genre of Chinese fiction usually associated with the Tang dynasty (618–907); the sto ...

'' form of short story tales to poetry.

Classification

Song

During the

Song dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...

(960–1279), two main categories of ''cí'' employed were ''xiǎolìng'' (小令; the original form since pre-Song) and ''màncí'' (慢詞; starting after Liu Yong), depending on the song being either short and in fast tempo or long and in slow tempo. Mostly ''xiǎolìng'' were written in the pre-Song era.

Ming and Qing

Later, during the

Ming The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...

(1368–1644) and

Qing The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speaki ...

(1644–1912) dynasties, the ''cí'', or rather the ''cípái'', became classified for the number of characters it dictates. It is called # ''xiǎolìng'' 小令 if it is no more than 58 characters, # ''zhōngdiào'' 中調 for 59–90, and # ''chángdiào'' 長調 for over 90. If the ''ci'' appears in one stanza, it is called ''dāndiào'' (單調). The largest majority is ''shuāngdiào'' (雙調) with two stanzas or ''què'' (闋) in identical or nearly identical patterns. There also are rare cases of ''sāndié'' (三疊) and ''sìdié'' (四疊), for three and four ''qüè'', respectively. In terms of style, ''cí'' can also be classified as either ''wǎnyuē'' (婉約; grace) or ''háofàng'' (豪放; bold).

Formation

According to Chinese Pronunciation, "Mandarin is said to have four main tones and one neutral tone (or, as some say, five tones). Each tone has a distinctive pitch contour which can be graphed using the Chinese 5-level system." There are four main tones in Mandarin Chinese, though a fifth ("neutral") tone may be considered. The tonal systems of past centuries is a matter for conjecture, but unlikely to be the same as modern Mandarin. The term "tonal contour" is used to indicate that these tones are not tones in the sense of absolute musical pitches, but rather in terms of the overall relative "shape" of the tones as spoken or chanted. The Wikipedia page on

Old Chinese phonology Scholars have attempted to reconstruct the phonology of Old Chinese from documentary evidence. Although the writing system does not describe sounds directly, shared phono-semantic, phonetic components of the most ancient Chinese characters are b ...

states that "The four tones of Middle Chinese were first described by Shen Yue around AD 500. They were the "level" (平 píng), "rising" (上 shǎng), "departing" (去 qù), and "entering" (入 rù) tones." The level is classified in 平 ping; and the rising, departing and entering are classified in 仄 ze. So, in any Cipai, the formation of Ci, each Chinese character in Ci will be required in detailed tones with 平 or 仄.

Cipai

Cipai, also called Cige and Cidiao, is the name of various formations of Ci.Most ''cípái'' consist of three characters. The literal meaning of a ''cípái'' can be rather obscure, making it difficult to translate. Some are taken straight from earlier poems, and some are clearly of Non-Han origin—mostly songs introduced from Central Asia. Some ''cípái'' have alternative names, usually taken from a famous piece of that very ''cípái''. There also are variants of certain ''cípái'', indicated by a prefix or a suffix. The formations of Ci are complicated, in different names of Cipai, the number of characters, syntactical structure, tones and rhyme are also different.

Example

For example, choosing the ''Cipai'', Jiang Chengzi or "Riverside City" (江城子), the tone requirements of each character in this Cipai is following: 仄平平仄仄平平。仄平平，仄平平。仄仄平平，仄仄仄平平。仄仄平平平仄仄，平仄仄，仄平平。平平仄仄仄平平。仄平平，仄平平。仄仄平平，仄仄仄平平。仄仄平平平仄仄，平仄仄，仄平平。 The following is a ''cí'' poem based on 江城子. :十年生死兩茫茫， :不思量，自難忘。 :千里孤墳，無處話淒涼。 :縱使相逢應不識， :塵滿面，鬢如霜。 :夜來幽夢忽還鄉， :小軒窗，正梳妝。 :相顧無言，唯有淚千行。 :料得年年斷腸處， :明月夜，短松岡。 General translation: :Ten boundless years now separate the living and the dead. :I have not often thought of her, but neither can I forget. :Her lonely grave is a thousand ''li'' distant, I can't say where my wife lies cold. :We could not recognise each other even if we met again, :My face is all but covered with dust, my temples glazed with frost. :In deepest night, a sudden dream returns me to my homeland. :She sits before a little window, and sorts her dress and make-up. :We look at each other without a word, a thousand lines of tears. :Must it be that every year I'll think of that heart-breaking place, :Where the moon shines brightly in the night, and bare pines guard the tomb. :——

, 蘇軾,《江城子·十年生死兩茫茫》 In the title of this ''cí'', "Riverside City" is the name of ''cípái.'' Su Shi was married when he was 19, and his wife was 16. His wife died when she was only 27. Because of his government duties, Su Shi moved to many different places in China, all far away from his hometown. One night in early 1075, about 10 years after her death, Su Shi dreamed of his wife, then composed this famous ''cí''.

Famous ''cí'' poets

;

Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (), from 907 to 979, was an era of political upheaval and division in 10th-century Imperial China. Five dynastic states quickly succeeded one another in the Central Plain, and more than a dozen concu ...

(812–870) *

Wei Zhuang Wei Zhuang (, 836?See, e.g.Mao Lanqiu, ''The Continued Study of the Birth Year Given in Xia Chengtao's ''the Chronicles of Wei Zhuang–910''Spring and Autumn Annals of the Ten Kingdoms'' (十國春秋)vol. 40), style name Duanyi (), was a Ch ...

(836–910) *

Li Cunxu Emperor Zhuangzong of Later Tang (), personal name Li Cunxu (), nickname Yazi (), stage name Li Tianxia (), was the ruling prince of the Former Jin dynasty (r. 908–923) and later became the founding emperor of the Later Tang dynasty (r. 923� ...

(885–926) * Gu Xiong (fl. 928) * Lu Qianyi (fl. 931) * Yan Xuan (fl. 932) * Mao Xizhen (fl. 947) * Xue Zhaoyun (10th century) *

Sun Guangxian Sun Guangxian (; died 968'' History of Song'', vol. 483.The Chinese Wikipedia article for Sun Guangxian gave his birth year as 900, but did not cite a source.), courtesy name Mengwen (), self-styled Baoguangzi (), was an official of the Chinese F ...

(d. 968) * Li Yu (937–978) ;

* Liu Yong (987–1053) *

Ouyang Xiu Ouyang Xiu (; 1007 – 1072 CE), courtesy name Yongshu, also known by his art names Zuiweng () and Liu Yi Jushi (), was a Chinese historian, calligrapher, epigrapher, essayist, poet, and politician of the Song dynasty. He was a renowned writer a ...

(1007–1072) *

(1037–1101) *

Song Ci Song Ci (; 1186–1249) was a Chinese physician, judge, forensic medical scientist, anthropologist, and writer of the Southern Song dynasty. He is most well known for being the world's first forensic entomologist, having recorded his experienc ...

(1186–1249) *

Huang Tingjian Huang Tingjian (; 1045–1105) was a Chinese calligrapher, painter, and poet of the Song dynasty. He is predominantly known as a calligrapher, and is also admired for his painting and poetry. He was one of the Four Masters of the Song Dynasty () ...

(1045–1105) *

Qin Guan Qin Guan (; 1049 – c. 1100) was a Chinese poet of the Song Dynasty. His courtesy name was Shaoyou (). Taixu was also his courtesy name. His pseudonym was Huaihai Jushi () and Hangou Jushi (). He was honored as one of the "Four Scholars of Sumen ...

(1049–1100) *

Zhou Bangyan Zhou Bangyan (; 1056–1121) was a Chinese bureaucrat, literatus and ci (poetry), ''ci'' poet of the Northern Song Dynasty. He was from Hangzhou, Qiantang (in modern Hangzhou). His courtesy name was Meicheng (), and his art name was Qingzhen Jus ...

(1056–1121) *

Li Qingzhao Li Qingzhao (1084 – ca. 1155), alias Yian Jushi (Chinese: 易安居士) was a Chinese poet and essayist during the Song dynasty. She is considered one of the greatest poets in Chinese history. Biography Early life Li Qingzhao was born in ...

(1081–1149?) *

Lu You Lu You (; 1125–1210) was a Chinese historian and poet of the Southern Song Dynasty (南宋). Career Early life and marriage Lu You was born on a boat floating in the Wei River early on a rainy morning, November 13, 1125. At the time of his b ...

(1125–1209) *

Xin Qiji Xin Qiji (28 May 1140 – 3 Oct 1207) was a Chinese calligrapher, military general, and poet during the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279). Life During Xin's lifetime, northern China was occupied during the Jin–Song Wars by the Jurchens of t ...

(1140–1207) *

Jiang Kui Jiāng Kuí () (c. 1155 Poyang – c. 1221 Hangzhou), courtesy name Yaozhang (), Art name Baishi Daoren (). Also known as "Jiang Baishi" () was a famous Chinese poet, composer, poetry theorist and calligrapher of the Song Dynasty, particularl ...

(1155–1221) * Wang Yisun (1240?–1290?) ;Post-Song *

Gao Bing Gao Bing (高棅, 1350 to 1423), was a Chinese poetry anthologist and writer. A native of Fuzhou, he flourished during the newly established Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) as an author and poetry theorist. Gao Bing collected and arranged Tang poetry-era ...

(1350–1423) *

Qian Qianyi Qian Qianyi (; Suzhou dialect: ; 1582–1664) was a Chinese historian, poet, and politician during the late Ming dynasty.Cihai: Page 1704. Qian was a famous author and poet; and along with Gong Dingzi and Wu Weiye was known as one of the Three M ...

(1582–1664) *

Wu Weiye Wu Weiye (; 1609–1671) was a Chinese poet and politician. He was a poet in Classical Chinese poetry. He lived during the difficult times of the Ming-Qing transition. Along with Gong Dingzi and Qian Qianyi, Wu Weiye was famous as one of the Thre ...

(1609–1671) *

Gong Dingzi Gong Dingzi () (1615–1673) was a Chinese poet and politician. He was a famous author and Classical Chinese poet. He was also a government official serving under the Ming Chongzhen Emperor The Chongzhen Emperor (; 6 February 1611 – 25 April ...

(1615–1673) *

(陈维崧 1626–1682) *

Zhu Yizun Zhu Yizun (; 1629–1709) was an author and poet during the Qing dynasty. In his early literary career, Zhu was recognized for his talent and helped by Gong Dingzi.Zhang, 82 Zhu became the founder of the Zhexi school of ''ci'' poetry (song lyrics ...

(1629–1709) *

Nalan Xingde Nalan Xingde (; January 19, 1655 – July 1, 1685), Manchu name Nara Singde, courtesy name Rongruo (), was a Qing dynasty Chinese poet, famous for his ci poetry. He was born Nalan Chengde (納蘭成德), but had to change his name when the Kan ...

(1655–1685) *

Mao Zedong Mao Zedong pronounced ; also romanised traditionally as Mao Tse-tung. (26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976), also known as Chairman Mao, was a Chinese communist revolutionary who was the founder of the People's Republic of China (PRC) ...

(1893–1976)

References

* Davis, A. R. (Albert Richard), Editor and Introduction,(1970), ''The Penguin Book of Chinese Verse''. (Baltimore: Penguin Books). * Graham, A. C. (1977). Poems of the Late T'ang. New York, New York: The New York Review of Books. * Hinton, David (2008). ''Classical Chinese Poetry: An Anthology''. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. / * Frankel, Hans H. (1978). ''The Flowering Plum and the Palace Lady''. (New Haven and London: Yale University Press) * Schafer, Edward H. (1963) ''The Golden Peaches of Samarkand''. Berkeley: University of California Press. . * Sun Chang, Kang-i. ''The evolution of Chinese tz'u poetry from late T'ang to Northern Sung''.Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1980. * Wagner, Marsha ''The lotus boat: origins of Chinese tz'u poetry in T'ang popular culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984). * Zhang, Hongsheng (2002). "Gong Dingzi and the Courtesan Gu Mei: Their Romance and the Revival of the Song Lyric in the Ming-Qing Transition", in ''Hsiang Lectures on Chinese Poetry, Volume 2'', Grace S. Fong, editor. (Montreal: Center for East Asian Research, McGill University). {{Authority control Chinese poetry forms

History

Classification

Song

Ming and Qing

Formation

Cipai

Example

Famous ''cí'' poets

See also

References

References